aidsВИЧ-инфекция и иммуносупрессииHIV Infection and Immunosuppressive Disorders2077-9828Baltic Medical Education Center10.22328/2077-9828-2018-10-4-25-36aids-389Research ArticleАНАЛИТИЧЕСКИЙ ОБЗОРANALYTICAL REVIEWСОСТОЯНИЕ ИММУНИТЕТА У ВИЧ-ИНФИЦИРОВАННЫХ ПАЦИЕНТОВ, КОИНФИЦИРОВАННЫХ ВИРУСОМ ГЕПАТИТА CIMMUNE STATUS IN HIV-INFECTED PATIENTS COINFECTED WITH HEPАTITIS C VIRUS (HCV)ШмагельК. В.ShmagelK. V.

Шмагель Константин Владимирович — д.м.н., зав. лабораторией экологической иммунологии

614990, Пермь, ул. Ленина, 13А

shmagel@iegm.ruЧерешневВ. А.ChereshnevV. A.

Черешнев Валерий Александрович

академик РАН, д.м.н., г.н.с. лаборатории экологической иммунологии 

г.н.с. 

620041, Екатеринбург, ул. Первомайская, 106

secretar@iip.uran.ruИнститут экологии и генетики микроорганизмов — филиал ФГБУН «Пермский федеральный исследовательский центр» УрО РАНРоссияIEGM UB RASRussian FederationИнститут экологии и генетики микроорганизмов — филиал ФГБУН «Пермский федеральный исследовательский центр» УрО РАН; ФГБУН «Институт иммунологии и физиологии» УрО РАНРоссияIEGM UB RAS; IIP UB RASRussian Federation2018160120191042536Copyright © Шмагель К.В., Черешнев В.А., 20192019Шмагель К.В., Черешнев В.А.Shmagel K.V., Chereshnev V.A.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://hiv.bmoc-spb.ru/jour/article/view/389

Среди коинфекций, сопутствующих ВИЧ-инфекции, чаще всего встречается вирусный гепатит С. В России более половины ВИЧ-инфицированных пациентов коинфицировано ВГС. Обе инфекции могут оказывать взаимное отрицательное влияние, что отражается в увеличении заболеваемости и смертности коинфицированных пациентов по сравнению с моноинфицированными. Негативная роль ВИЧ-инфекции в развитии гепатита C проявляется ускорением процесса фиброзирования и формирования цирроза печени, а также частого возникновения гепатоцеллюлярной карциномы. Менее изучены эффекты ВГС-инфекции на течение ВИЧ-инфекции. Известно, что гепатит может замедлять восстановление иммунитета на фоне получения антиретровирусной терапии. Кроме того, нарушение печеночного барьера для продуктов, поступающих из кишечника, по-видимому, способно приводить к дополнительной активации иммунитета, углублению иммунодефицита, усилению системного воспаления и развитию СПИД-неассоциированных заболеваний, в первую очередь болезней сердечно-сосудистой системы. Решение проблемы большинство исследователей видит в раннем начале антиретровирусной терапии, а также в переходе от интерферонотерапии к назначению препаратов прямого действия при лечении ВГС-инфекции.

The most common co-infection associated with HIV infection is viral hepatitis C. More than half of HIV-infected patients is coinfected with HCV in Russia. Both infections can have a reciprocal negative effect, what is reflected in an increase in the morbidity and mortality of co-infected patients compared with mono-infected patients. The negative role of HIV infection in the development of hepatitis C is manifested by the acceleration of the process of fibrosis and the formation of cirrhosis of the liver, as well as the frequent occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. The effects of HCV infection on the course of HIV infection have been less studied. It is known that hepatitis can slow down the immune reconstitution while receiving antiretroviral therapy. In addition, a violation of the hepatic barrier for products supplying from the intestine, apparently, can lead to additional activation of the immune system, aggravatted immunodeficiency, increased systemic inflammation and the development of AIDS-non-associated diseases, primarily cardiovascular diseases. Most researchers see the solution of the problem in the early start of antiretroviral therapy, as well as in the transition from interferon therapy to the appointment of drugs of direct action in the treatment of HCV infection.

ВИЧ-инфекциякоинфекция вирусом гепатита Cфиброз и цирроз печениантиретровирусная терапиямикробная транслокациясистемное воспалениеСПИД-неассоциированные заболеванияHIV infectionco-infection with hepatitis C virusfibrosis and cirrhosis of the liverantiretroviral therapymicrobial translocationsystemic inflammationHIV non-associated diseasesРабота выполнена при поддержке гранта РФФИ № 17-54-30006.ReferencesBoulougoura A., Sereti I. HIV infection and immune activation: the role of coinfections. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2016, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 191– 200. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26720550.Boulougoura A., Sereti I. HIV infection and immune activation: the role of coinfections. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2016, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 191– 200. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26720550.Appay V., Kelleher A.D. Immune activation and immune aging in HIV infection. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2016, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 242–249. URL: ://WOS:000369652400015.Appay V., Kelleher A.D. Immune activation and immune aging in HIV infection. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2016, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 242–249. URL: ://WOS:000369652400015.Matthews P.C., Geretti A.M., Goulder P.J., Klenerman P. Epidemiology and impact of HIV coinfection with hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Clin. Virol., 2014, Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 20–33. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973812.Matthews P.C., Geretti A.M., Goulder P.J., Klenerman P. Epidemiology and impact of HIV coinfection with hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Clin. Virol., 2014, Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 20–33. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973812.Effros R.B. The silent war of CMV in aging and HIV infection. Mech. Ageing Dev., 2016, Vol. 158, pp. 46–52. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26404009.Effros R.B. The silent war of CMV in aging and HIV infection. Mech. Ageing Dev., 2016, Vol. 158, pp. 46–52. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26404009.Platt L., Easterbrook P., Gower E., McDonald B., Sabin K., McGowan C., Yanny I., Razavi H., Vickerman P. Prevalence and burden of HCV coinfection in people living with HIV: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis., 2016, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 797–808. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26922272.Platt L., Easterbrook P., Gower E., McDonald B., Sabin K., McGowan C., Yanny I., Razavi H., Vickerman P. Prevalence and burden of HCV coinfection in people living with HIV: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect. Dis., 2016, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 797–808. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26922272.Alter M.J. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J. Hepatol., 2006, Vol. 44, No. 1, Suppl., pp. S6–S9. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16352363.Alter M.J. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J. Hepatol., 2006, Vol. 44, No. 1, Suppl., pp. S6–S9. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16352363.Peters L., Mocroft A., Lundgren J., Grint D., Kirk O., Rockstroh J. HIV and hepatitis C co-infection in Europe, Israel and Argentina: a EuroSIDA perspective. BMC Infect. Dis., 2014, Vol. 14, Suppl. 6, pp. S13. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25253564.Peters L., Mocroft A., Lundgren J., Grint D., Kirk O., Rockstroh J. HIV and hepatitis C co-infection in Europe, Israel and Argentina: a EuroSIDA perspective. BMC Infect. Dis., 2014, Vol. 14, Suppl. 6, pp. S13. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25253564.Rhodes T., Platt L., Judd A., Mikhailova L.A., Sarang A., Wallis N., Alpatova T., Hickman M., Parry J.V. Hepatitis C virus infection, HIV co-infection, and associated risk among injecting drug users in Togliatti, Russia. Int. J. STD AIDS, 2005, Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 749–754. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16303071.Rhodes T., Platt L., Judd A., Mikhailova L.A., Sarang A., Wallis N., Alpatova T., Hickman M., Parry J.V. Hepatitis C virus infection, HIV co-infection, and associated risk among injecting drug users in Togliatti, Russia. Int. J. STD AIDS, 2005, Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 749–754. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16303071.Chen T.Y., Ding E.L., Seage Iii G.R., Kim A.Y. Meta-analysis: increased mortality associated with hepatitis C in HIV-infected persons is unrelated to HIV disease progression. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 49, No. 10, pp. 1605–1615. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19842982.Chen T.Y., Ding E.L., Seage Iii G.R., Kim A.Y. Meta-analysis: increased mortality associated with hepatitis C in HIV-infected persons is unrelated to HIV disease progression. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 49, No. 10, pp. 1605–1615. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19842982.Deng L.P., Gui X.E., Zhang Y.X., Gao S.C., Yang R.R. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the course of hepatitis C virus infection: a meta-analysis. World J. Gastroenterol., 2009, Vol. 15, No. 8, pp. 996–1003. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19248201.Deng L.P., Gui X.E., Zhang Y.X., Gao S.C., Yang R.R. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the course of hepatitis C virus infection: a meta-analysis. World J. Gastroenterol., 2009, Vol. 15, No. 8, pp. 996–1003. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19248201.Brau N., Fox R.K., Xiao P., Marks K., Naqvi Z., Taylor L.E., Trikha A., Sherman M., Sulkowski M.S., Dieterich D.T., Rigsby M.O., Wright T.L., Hernandez M.D., Jain M.K., Khatri G.K., Sterling R.K., Bonacini M., Martyn C.A., Aytaman A., Llovet J.M., Brown S.T., Bini E.J., North American Liver Cancer in H.I.V.S.G. Presentation and outcome of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: a U.S.-Canadian multicenter study. J. Hepatol., 2007, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 527–537. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17692986.Brau N., Fox R.K., Xiao P., Marks K., Naqvi Z., Taylor L.E., Trikha A., Sherman M., Sulkowski M.S., Dieterich D.T., Rigsby M.O., Wright T.L., Hernandez M.D., Jain M.K., Khatri G.K., Sterling R.K., Bonacini M., Martyn C.A., Aytaman A., Llovet J.M., Brown S.T., Bini E.J., North American Liver Cancer in H.I.V.S.G. Presentation and outcome of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: a U.S.-Canadian multicenter study. J. Hepatol., 2007, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 527–537. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17692986.Operskalski E.A., Kovacs A. HIV/HCV co-infection: pathogenesis, clinical complications, treatment, and new therapeutic technologies. Curr. HIV/AIDS Rep., 2011, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 12–22. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21221855.Operskalski E.A., Kovacs A. HIV/HCV co-infection: pathogenesis, clinical complications, treatment, and new therapeutic technologies. Curr. HIV/AIDS Rep., 2011, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 12–22. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21221855.Hernando V., Alejos B., Monge S., Berenguer J., Anta L., Vinuesa D., Palacios R., Muga R., Moreno S., Jarrin I., CoRIS cohort. All-cause mortality in the cohorts of the Spanish AIDS Research Network (RIS) compared with the general population: 1997–2010. BMC Infect. Dis., 2013, Vol. 13, pp. 382. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23961924.Hernando V., Alejos B., Monge S., Berenguer J., Anta L., Vinuesa D., Palacios R., Muga R., Moreno S., Jarrin I., CoRIS cohort. All-cause mortality in the cohorts of the Spanish AIDS Research Network (RIS) compared with the general population: 1997–2010. BMC Infect. Dis., 2013, Vol. 13, pp. 382. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23961924.Rotman Y., Liang T.J. Coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus: virological, immunological, and clinical outcomes. J. Virol., 2009, Vol. 83, No. 15, pp. 7366–7374. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19420073.Rotman Y., Liang T.J. Coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus: virological, immunological, and clinical outcomes. J. Virol., 2009, Vol. 83, No. 15, pp. 7366–7374. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19420073.Kim A.Y., Chung R.T. Coinfection with HIV-1 and HCV–A one-two punch. Gastroenterol., 2009, Vol. 137, No. 3, pp. 795–814. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19549523.Kim A.Y., Chung R.T. Coinfection with HIV-1 and HCV–A one-two punch. Gastroenterol., 2009, Vol. 137, No. 3, pp. 795–814. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19549523.Kong L., Cardona Maya W., Moreno-Fernandez M.E., Ma G., Shata M.T., Sherman K.E., Chougnet C., Blackard J.T. Low-level HIV infection of hepatocytes. Virol. J., 2012, Vol. 9, pp. 157. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22877244.Kong L., Cardona Maya W., Moreno-Fernandez M.E., Ma G., Shata M.T., Sherman K.E., Chougnet C., Blackard J.T. Low-level HIV infection of hepatocytes. Virol. J., 2012, Vol. 9, pp. 157. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22877244.Pal S., Sullivan D.G., Kim S., Lai K.K., Kae J., Cotler S.J., Carithers R.L., Jr., Wood B.L., Perkins J.D., Gretch D.R. Productive replication of hepatitis C virus in perihepatic lymph nodes in vivo: implications of HCV lymphotropism. Gastroenterology, 2006, Vol. 130, No. 4, pp. 1107– 1116. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618405.Pal S., Sullivan D.G., Kim S., Lai K.K., Kae J., Cotler S.J., Carithers R.L., Jr., Wood B.L., Perkins J.D., Gretch D.R. Productive replication of hepatitis C virus in perihepatic lymph nodes in vivo: implications of HCV lymphotropism. Gastroenterology, 2006, Vol. 130, No. 4, pp. 1107– 1116. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618405.Laskus T., Radkowski M., Wang L.F., Vargas H., Rakela J. The presence of active hepatitis C virus replication in lymphoid tissue in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Infect. Dis., 1998, Vol. 178, No. 4, pp. 1189–1192. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9806058.Laskus T., Radkowski M., Wang L.F., Vargas H., Rakela J. The presence of active hepatitis C virus replication in lymphoid tissue in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Infect. Dis., 1998, Vol. 178, No. 4, pp. 1189–1192. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9806058.Thomas D.L., Astemborski J., Vlahov D., Strathdee S.A., Ray S.C., Nelson K.E., Galai N., Nolt K.R., Laeyendecker O., Todd J.A. Determinants of the quantity of hepatitis C virus RNA. J. Infect. Dis., 2000, Vol. 181, No. 3, pp. 844–851. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10720503.Thomas D.L., Astemborski J., Vlahov D., Strathdee S.A., Ray S.C., Nelson K.E., Galai N., Nolt K.R., Laeyendecker O., Todd J.A. Determinants of the quantity of hepatitis C virus RNA. J. Infect. Dis., 2000, Vol. 181, No. 3, pp. 844–851. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10720503.Bonacini M., Govindarajan S., Blatt L.M., Schmid P., Conrad A., Lindsay K.L. Patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus demonstrate higher levels of hepatic HCV RNA. J. Viral. Hepat., 1999, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 203–208. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10607232.Bonacini M., Govindarajan S., Blatt L.M., Schmid P., Conrad A., Lindsay K.L. Patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus demonstrate higher levels of hepatic HCV RNA. J. Viral. Hepat., 1999, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 203–208. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10607232.Beld M., Penning M., Lukashov V., McMorrow M., Roos M., Pakker N., van den Hoek A., Goudsmit J. Evidence that both HIV and HIV-induced immunodeficiency enhance HCV replication among HCV seroconverters. Virol., 1998, Vol. 244, No. 2, pp. 504–512. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9601518.Beld M., Penning M., Lukashov V., McMorrow M., Roos M., Pakker N., van den Hoek A., Goudsmit J. Evidence that both HIV and HIV-induced immunodeficiency enhance HCV replication among HCV seroconverters. Virol., 1998, Vol. 244, No. 2, pp. 504–512. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9601518.Lin W., Weinberg E.M., Tai A.W., Peng L.F., Brockman M.A., Kim K.A., Kim S.S., Borges C.B., Shao R.X., Chung R.T. HIV increases HCV replication in a TGF-beta1-dependent manner. Gastroenterology, 2008, Vol. 134, No. 3, pp. 803–811. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18325393.Lin W., Weinberg E.M., Tai A.W., Peng L.F., Brockman M.A., Kim K.A., Kim S.S., Borges C.B., Shao R.X., Chung R.T. HIV increases HCV replication in a TGF-beta1-dependent manner. Gastroenterology, 2008, Vol. 134, No. 3, pp. 803–811. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18325393.Reiberger T., Ferlitsch A., Sieghart W., Kreil A., Breitenecker F., Rieger A., Schmied B., Gangl A., Peck-Radosavljevic M. HIV-HCV co-infected patients with low CD4+ cell nadirs are at risk for faster fibrosis progression and portal hypertension. J. Viral. Hepat., 2010, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 400–409. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19780945.Reiberger T., Ferlitsch A., Sieghart W., Kreil A., Breitenecker F., Rieger A., Schmied B., Gangl A., Peck-Radosavljevic M. HIV-HCV co-infected patients with low CD4+ cell nadirs are at risk for faster fibrosis progression and portal hypertension. J. Viral. Hepat., 2010, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 400–409. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19780945.Rashkin S., Rouster S., Goodman Z.D., Sherman K.E. T-helper cells and liver fibrosis in hepatitis C virus-monoinfected patients. J. Viral. Hepat., 2010, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 222–226. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19709360.Rashkin S., Rouster S., Goodman Z.D., Sherman K.E. T-helper cells and liver fibrosis in hepatitis C virus-monoinfected patients. J. Viral. Hepat., 2010, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 222–226. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19709360.Kooij K.W., Wit F.W., van Zoest R.A., Schouten J., Kootstra N.A., van Vugt M., Prins M., Reiss P., van der Valk M., Group A.G.C.S. Liver fibrosis in HIV-infected individuals on long-term antiretroviral therapy: associated with immune activation, immunodeficiency and prior use of didanosine. AIDS, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 1771–1780. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27088320.Kooij K.W., Wit F.W., van Zoest R.A., Schouten J., Kootstra N.A., van Vugt M., Prins M., Reiss P., van der Valk M., Group A.G.C.S. Liver fibrosis in HIV-infected individuals on long-term antiretroviral therapy: associated with immune activation, immunodeficiency and prior use of didanosine. AIDS, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 1771–1780. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27088320.Potter M., Odueyungbo A., Yang H., Saeed S., Klein M.B. Canadian Co-infection Cohort Study I. Impact of hepatitis C viral replication on CD4+ T-lymphocyte progression in HIV-HCV coinfection before and after antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 2010, Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1857–1865. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20479633.Potter M., Odueyungbo A., Yang H., Saeed S., Klein M.B. Canadian Co-infection Cohort Study I. Impact of hepatitis C viral replication on CD4+ T-lymphocyte progression in HIV-HCV coinfection before and after antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 2010, Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1857–1865. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20479633.Mandorfer M., Schwabl P., Steiner S., Reiberger T., Peck-Radosavljevic M. Advances in the management of HIV/HCV coinfection. Hepatol. Int., 2016, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 424–435. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26758592.Mandorfer M., Schwabl P., Steiner S., Reiberger T., Peck-Radosavljevic M. Advances in the management of HIV/HCV coinfection. Hepatol. Int., 2016, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 424–435. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26758592.Zhao Q., Qin C.Y., Zhao Z.H., Fan Y.C., Wang K. Epigenetic modifications in hepatic stellate cells contribute to liver fibrosis. Tohoku J. Exp. Med., 2013, Vol. 229, No. 1, pp. 35–43. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23238615.Zhao Q., Qin C.Y., Zhao Z.H., Fan Y.C., Wang K. Epigenetic modifications in hepatic stellate cells contribute to liver fibrosis. Tohoku J. Exp. Med., 2013, Vol. 229, No. 1, pp. 35–43. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23238615.Lee U.E., Friedman S.L. Mechanisms of hepatic fibrogenesis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol., 2011, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 195–206. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21497738.Lee U.E., Friedman S.L. Mechanisms of hepatic fibrogenesis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol., 2011, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 195–206. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21497738.Marrone G., Shah V.H., Gracia-Sancho J. Sinusoidal communication in liver fibrosis and regeneration. J. Hepatol., 2016, Vol. 65, No. 3, pp. 608–617. URL: DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.04.018. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27151183.Marrone G., Shah V.H., Gracia-Sancho J. Sinusoidal communication in liver fibrosis and regeneration. J. Hepatol., 2016, Vol. 65, No. 3, pp. 608–617. URL: DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.04.018. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27151183.Greuter T., Shah V.H. Hepatic sinusoids in liver injury, inflammation, and fibrosis: new pathophysiological insights. J. Gastroenterol., 2016, Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 511–519. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26939970.Greuter T., Shah V.H. Hepatic sinusoids in liver injury, inflammation, and fibrosis: new pathophysiological insights. J. Gastroenterol., 2016, Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 511–519. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26939970.Matsuzaki K. Modulation of TGF-beta signaling during progression of chronic liver diseases. Front. Biosci (Landmark Ed), 2009, Vol. 14, pp. 2923–2934. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19273245.Matsuzaki K. Modulation of TGF-beta signaling during progression of chronic liver diseases. Front. Biosci (Landmark Ed), 2009, Vol. 14, pp. 2923–2934. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19273245.Tsukamoto H., Zhu N.L., Asahina K., Mann D.A., Mann J. Epigenetic cell fate regulation of hepatic stellate cells. Hepatol. Res., 2011, Vol. 41, No. 7, pp. 675–682. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21504520.Tsukamoto H., Zhu N.L., Asahina K., Mann D.A., Mann J. Epigenetic cell fate regulation of hepatic stellate cells. Hepatol. Res., 2011, Vol. 41, No. 7, pp. 675–682. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21504520.Jain M.K., Adams-Huet B., Terekhova D., Kushner L.E., Bedimo R., Li X., Holodniy M. Acute and chronic immune biomarker changes during interferon/ribavirin treatment in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. J. Viral. Hepat., 2015, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 25–36. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24506344.Jain M.K., Adams-Huet B., Terekhova D., Kushner L.E., Bedimo R., Li X., Holodniy M. Acute and chronic immune biomarker changes during interferon/ribavirin treatment in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. J. Viral. Hepat., 2015, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 25–36. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24506344.Ciccaglione A.R., Marcantonio C., Tritarelli E., Tataseo P., Ferraris A., Bruni R., Dallapiccola B., Gerosolimo G., Costantino A., Rapicetta M. Microarray analysis identifies a common set of cellular genes modulated by different HCV replicon clones. BMC Genomics, 2008, Vol. 9, pp. 309. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18590516.Ciccaglione A.R., Marcantonio C., Tritarelli E., Tataseo P., Ferraris A., Bruni R., Dallapiccola B., Gerosolimo G., Costantino A., Rapicetta M. Microarray analysis identifies a common set of cellular genes modulated by different HCV replicon clones. BMC Genomics, 2008, Vol. 9, pp. 309. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18590516.Hiet M.S., Bauhofer O., Zayas M., Roth H., Tanaka Y., Schirmacher P., Willemsen J., Grunvogel O., Bender S., Binder M., Lohmann V., Lotteau V., Ruggieri A., Bartenschlager R. Control of temporal activation of hepatitis C virus-induced interferon response by domain 2 of nonstructural protein 5A. J. Hepatol., 2015, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 829–837. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25908268.Hiet M.S., Bauhofer O., Zayas M., Roth H., Tanaka Y., Schirmacher P., Willemsen J., Grunvogel O., Bender S., Binder M., Lohmann V., Lotteau V., Ruggieri A., Bartenschlager R. Control of temporal activation of hepatitis C virus-induced interferon response by domain 2 of nonstructural protein 5A. J. Hepatol., 2015, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 829–837. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25908268.Arnaud N., Dabo S., Akazawa D., Fukasawa M., Shinkai-Ouchi F., Hugon J., Wakita T., Meurs E.F. Hepatitis C virus reveals a novel early control in acute immune response. PLoS Pathog., 2011, Vol. 7, pp. e1002289. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22022264.Arnaud N., Dabo S., Akazawa D., Fukasawa M., Shinkai-Ouchi F., Hugon J., Wakita T., Meurs E.F. Hepatitis C virus reveals a novel early control in acute immune response. PLoS Pathog., 2011, Vol. 7, pp. e1002289. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22022264.Li K., Li N.L., Wei D., Pfeffer S.R., Fan M., Pfeffer L.M. Activation of chemokine and inflammatory cytokine response in hepatitis C virus-infected hepatocytes depends on Toll-like receptor 3 sensing of hepatitis C virus double-stranded RNA intermediates. Hepatology, 2012, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 666–675. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22030901.Li K., Li N.L., Wei D., Pfeffer S.R., Fan M., Pfeffer L.M. Activation of chemokine and inflammatory cytokine response in hepatitis C virus-infected hepatocytes depends on Toll-like receptor 3 sensing of hepatitis C virus double-stranded RNA intermediates. Hepatology, 2012, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 666–675. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22030901.Wieland S., Makowska Z., Campana B., Calabrese D., Dill M.T., Chung J., Chisari F.V., Heim M.H. Simultaneous detection of hepatitis C virus and interferon stimulated gene expression in infected human liver. Hepatology, 2014, Vol. 59, No. 6, pp. 2121–2130. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24122862.Wieland S., Makowska Z., Campana B., Calabrese D., Dill M.T., Chung J., Chisari F.V., Heim M.H. Simultaneous detection of hepatitis C virus and interferon stimulated gene expression in infected human liver. Hepatology, 2014, Vol. 59, No. 6, pp. 2121–2130. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24122862.Metz P., Dazert E., Ruggieri A., Mazur J., Kaderali L., Kaul A., Zeuge U., Windisch M.P., Trippler M., Lohmann V., Binder M., Frese M., Bartenschlager R. Identification of type I and type II interferon-induced effectors controlling hepatitis C virus replication. Hepatology, 2012, Vol. 56, No. 6, pp. 2082–2093. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22711689.Metz P., Dazert E., Ruggieri A., Mazur J., Kaderali L., Kaul A., Zeuge U., Windisch M.P., Trippler M., Lohmann V., Binder M., Frese M., Bartenschlager R. Identification of type I and type II interferon-induced effectors controlling hepatitis C virus replication. Hepatology, 2012, Vol. 56, No. 6, pp. 2082–2093. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22711689.Scagnolari C., Monteleone K., Cacciotti G., Antonelli G. Role of interferons in chronic hepatitis C infection. Curr. Drug Targets, 5 Feb. 2016. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26844564.Scagnolari C., Monteleone K., Cacciotti G., Antonelli G. Role of interferons in chronic hepatitis C infection. Curr. Drug Targets, 5 Feb. 2016. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26844564.Dill M.T., Duong F.H., Vogt J.E., Bibert S., Bochud P.Y., Terracciano L., Papassotiropoulos A., Roth V., Heim M.H. Interferon-induced gene expression is a stronger predictor of treatment response than IL28B genotype in patients with hepatitis C. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 140, No. 3, pp. 1021–1031. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21111740.Dill M.T., Duong F.H., Vogt J.E., Bibert S., Bochud P.Y., Terracciano L., Papassotiropoulos A., Roth V., Heim M.H. Interferon-induced gene expression is a stronger predictor of treatment response than IL28B genotype in patients with hepatitis C. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 140, No. 3, pp. 1021–1031. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21111740.Norris S., Collins C., Doherty D.G., Smith F., McEntee G., Traynor O., Nolan N., Hegarty J., O’Farrelly C. Resident human hepatic lymphocytes are phenotypically different from circulating lymphocytes. J. Hepatol., 1998, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 84–90. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9537869.Norris S., Collins C., Doherty D.G., Smith F., McEntee G., Traynor O., Nolan N., Hegarty J., O’Farrelly C. Resident human hepatic lymphocytes are phenotypically different from circulating lymphocytes. J. Hepatol., 1998, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 84–90. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9537869.Amadei B., Urbani S., Cazaly A., Fisicaro P., Zerbini A., Ahmed P., Missale G., Ferrari C., Khakoo S.I. Activation of natural killer cells during acute infection with hepatitis C virus. Gastroenterology, 2010, Vol. 138, No. 4, pp. 1536–1545. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080094.Amadei B., Urbani S., Cazaly A., Fisicaro P., Zerbini A., Ahmed P., Missale G., Ferrari C., Khakoo S.I. Activation of natural killer cells during acute infection with hepatitis C virus. Gastroenterology, 2010, Vol. 138, No. 4, pp. 1536–1545. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080094.Ahlenstiel G., Titerence R.H., Koh C., Edlich B., Feld J.J., Rotman Y., Ghany M.G., Hoofnagle J.H., Liang T.J., Heller T., Rehermann B. Natural killer cells are polarized toward cytotoxicity in chronic hepatitis C in an interferon-alfa-dependent manner. Gastroenterology, 2010, Vol. 138, No. 1, pp. 325–335. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19747917.Ahlenstiel G., Titerence R.H., Koh C., Edlich B., Feld J.J., Rotman Y., Ghany M.G., Hoofnagle J.H., Liang T.J., Heller T., Rehermann B. Natural killer cells are polarized toward cytotoxicity in chronic hepatitis C in an interferon-alfa-dependent manner. Gastroenterology, 2010, Vol. 138, No. 1, pp. 325–335. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19747917.Holder K.A., Stapleton S.N., Gallant M.E., Russell R.S., Grant M.D. Hepatitis C virus-infected cells downregulate NKp30 and inhibit ex vivo NK cell functions. J. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 191, No. 6, pp. 3308–3318. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23960237.Holder K.A., Stapleton S.N., Gallant M.E., Russell R.S., Grant M.D. Hepatitis C virus-infected cells downregulate NKp30 and inhibit ex vivo NK cell functions. J. Immunol., 2013, Vol. 191, No. 6, pp. 3308–3318. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23960237.Mondelli M.U., Oliviero B., Mele D., Mantovani S., Gazzabin C., Varchetta S. Natural killer cell functional dichotomy: a feature of chronic viral hepatitis? Front. Immunol., 2012, Vol. 3, pp. 351. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23420385.Mondelli M.U., Oliviero B., Mele D., Mantovani S., Gazzabin C., Varchetta S. Natural killer cell functional dichotomy: a feature of chronic viral hepatitis? Front. Immunol., 2012, Vol. 3, pp. 351. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23420385.Frese M., Schwarzle V., Barth K., Krieger N., Lohmann V., Mihm S., Haller O., Bartenschlager R. Interferon-gamma inhibits replication of subgenomic and genomic hepatitis C virus RNAs. Hepatology, 2002, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 694–703. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11870386.Frese M., Schwarzle V., Barth K., Krieger N., Lohmann V., Mihm S., Haller O., Bartenschlager R. Interferon-gamma inhibits replication of subgenomic and genomic hepatitis C virus RNAs. Hepatology, 2002, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 694–703. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11870386.Major M.E., Mihalik K., Puig M., Rehermann B., Nascimbeni M., Rice C.M., Feinstone S.M. Previously infected and recovered chimpanzees exhibit rapid responses that control hepatitis C virus replication upon rechallenge. J. Virol., 2002, Vol. 76, No. 13, pp. 6586–6595. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12050371.Major M.E., Mihalik K., Puig M., Rehermann B., Nascimbeni M., Rice C.M., Feinstone S.M. Previously infected and recovered chimpanzees exhibit rapid responses that control hepatitis C virus replication upon rechallenge. J. Virol., 2002, Vol. 76, No. 13, pp. 6586–6595. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12050371.Glässner A., Eisenhardt M., Krämer B., Körner C., Coenen M., Sauerbruch T., Spengler U., Nattermann J. NK cells from HCV-infected patients effectively induce apoptosis of activated primary human hepatic stellate cells in a TRAIL-, FasL- and NKG2D-dependent manner. Lab. Invest., 2012, Vol. 92, No. 7, pp. 967–977. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22449797.Glässner A., Eisenhardt M., Krämer B., Körner C., Coenen M., Sauerbruch T., Spengler U., Nattermann J. NK cells from HCV-infected patients effectively induce apoptosis of activated primary human hepatic stellate cells in a TRAIL-, FasL- and NKG2D-dependent manner. Lab. Invest., 2012, Vol. 92, No. 7, pp. 967–977. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22449797.Terilli R.R., Cox A.L. Immunity and hepatitis C: a review. Curr. HIV/AIDS Rep., 2013, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 51–58. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23180007.Terilli R.R., Cox A.L. Immunity and hepatitis C: a review. Curr. HIV/AIDS Rep., 2013, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 51–58. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23180007.Semmo N., Lucas M., Krashias G., Lauer G., Chapel H., Klenerman P. Maintenance of HCV-specific T-cell responses in antibody-deficient patients a decade after early therapy. Blood, 2006, Vol. 107, No. 11, pp. 4570–4571. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16717132.Semmo N., Lucas M., Krashias G., Lauer G., Chapel H., Klenerman P. Maintenance of HCV-specific T-cell responses in antibody-deficient patients a decade after early therapy. Blood, 2006, Vol. 107, No. 11, pp. 4570–4571. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16717132.Lauer G.M., Walker B.D. Hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 2001, Vol. 345, No. 1, pp. 41–52. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11439948.Lauer G.M., Walker B.D. Hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med., 2001, Vol. 345, No. 1, pp. 41–52. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11439948.Morin T.J., Broering T.J., Leav B.A., Blair B.M., Rowley K.J., Boucher E.N., Wang Y., Cheslock P.S., Knauber M., Olsen D.B., Ludmerer S.W., Szabo G., Finberg R.W., Purcell R.H., Lanford R.E., Ambrosino D.M., Molrine D.C., Babcock G.J. Human monoclonal antibody HCV1 effectively prevents and treats HCV infection in chimpanzees. PLoS Pathog., 2012, Vol. 8, pp. e1 002 895. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22952447.Morin T.J., Broering T.J., Leav B.A., Blair B.M., Rowley K.J., Boucher E.N., Wang Y., Cheslock P.S., Knauber M., Olsen D.B., Ludmerer S.W., Szabo G., Finberg R.W., Purcell R.H., Lanford R.E., Ambrosino D.M., Molrine D.C., Babcock G.J. Human monoclonal antibody HCV1 effectively prevents and treats HCV infection in chimpanzees. PLoS Pathog., 2012, Vol. 8, pp. e1 002 895. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22952447.Law M., Maruyama T., Lewis J., Giang E., Tarr A.W., Stamataki Z., Gastaminza P., Chisari F.V., Jones I.M., Fox R.I., Ball J.K., McKeating J.A., Kneteman N.M., Burton D.R. Broadly neutralizing antibodies protect against hepatitis C virus quasispecies challenge. Nat. Med., 2008, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 25–27. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18064037.Law M., Maruyama T., Lewis J., Giang E., Tarr A.W., Stamataki Z., Gastaminza P., Chisari F.V., Jones I.M., Fox R.I., Ball J.K., McKeating J.A., Kneteman N.M., Burton D.R. Broadly neutralizing antibodies protect against hepatitis C virus quasispecies challenge. Nat. Med., 2008, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 25–27. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18064037.Dowd K.A., Netski D.M., Wang X.H., Cox A.L., Ray S.C. Selection pressure from neutralizing antibodies drives sequence evolution during acute infection with hepatitis C virus. Gastroenterology, 2009, Vol. 136, No. 7, pp. 2377–2386. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19303013.Dowd K.A., Netski D.M., Wang X.H., Cox A.L., Ray S.C. Selection pressure from neutralizing antibodies drives sequence evolution during acute infection with hepatitis C virus. Gastroenterology, 2009, Vol. 136, No. 7, pp. 2377–2386. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19303013.Grakoui A., Shoukry N.H., Woollard D.J., Han J.H., Hanson H.L., Ghrayeb J., Murthy K.K., Rice C.M., Walker C.M. HCV persistence and immune evasion in the absence of memory T cell help. Science, 2003, Vol. 302, No. 5645, pp. 659–662. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14576438.Grakoui A., Shoukry N.H., Woollard D.J., Han J.H., Hanson H.L., Ghrayeb J., Murthy K.K., Rice C.M., Walker C.M. HCV persistence and immune evasion in the absence of memory T cell help. Science, 2003, Vol. 302, No. 5645, pp. 659–662. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14576438.Shoukry N.H., Grakoui A., Houghton M., Chien D.Y., Ghrayeb J., Reimann K.A., Walker C.M. Memory CD8+ T cells are required for protection from persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J. Exp. Med., 2003, Vol. 197, No. 12, pp. 1645–1655. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12810686.Shoukry N.H., Grakoui A., Houghton M., Chien D.Y., Ghrayeb J., Reimann K.A., Walker C.M. Memory CD8+ T cells are required for protection from persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J. Exp. Med., 2003, Vol. 197, No. 12, pp. 1645–1655. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12810686.Shin E.C., Park S.H., Demino M., Nascimbeni M., Mihalik K., Major M., Veerapu N.S., Heller T., Feinstone S.M., Rice C.M., Rehermann B. Delayed induction, not impaired recruitment, of specific CD8(+) T cells causes the late onset of acute hepatitis C. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp. 686–695, 695.e681. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21699897.Shin E.C., Park S.H., Demino M., Nascimbeni M., Mihalik K., Major M., Veerapu N.S., Heller T., Feinstone S.M., Rice C.M., Rehermann B. Delayed induction, not impaired recruitment, of specific CD8(+) T cells causes the late onset of acute hepatitis C. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp. 686–695, 695.e681. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21699897.Klenerman P., Thimme R. T cell responses in hepatitis C: the good, the bad and the unconventional. Gut, 2012, Vol. 61, No. 8, pp. 1226–1234. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21873736.Klenerman P., Thimme R. T cell responses in hepatitis C: the good, the bad and the unconventional. Gut, 2012, Vol. 61, No. 8, pp. 1226–1234. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21873736.Smyk-Pearson S., Tester I.A., Klarquist J., Palmer B.E., Pawlotsky J.M., Golden-Mason L., Rosen H.R. Spontaneous recovery in acute human hepatitis C virus infection: functional T-cell thresholds and relative importance of CD4 help. J. Virol., 2008, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 1827–1837. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18045940.Smyk-Pearson S., Tester I.A., Klarquist J., Palmer B.E., Pawlotsky J.M., Golden-Mason L., Rosen H.R. Spontaneous recovery in acute human hepatitis C virus infection: functional T-cell thresholds and relative importance of CD4 help. J. Virol., 2008, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 1827–1837. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18045940.Urbani S., Amadei B., Fisicaro P., Tola D., Orlandini A., Sacchelli L., Mori C., Missale G., Ferrari C. Outcome of acute hepatitis C is related to virus-specific CD4 function and maturation of antiviral memory CD8 responses. Hepatology, 2006, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 126–139. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16799989.Urbani S., Amadei B., Fisicaro P., Tola D., Orlandini A., Sacchelli L., Mori C., Missale G., Ferrari C. Outcome of acute hepatitis C is related to virus-specific CD4 function and maturation of antiviral memory CD8 responses. Hepatology, 2006, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 126–139. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16799989.Raziorrouh B., Ulsenheimer A., Schraut W., Heeg M., Kurktschiev P., Zachoval R., Jung M.C., Thimme R., Neumann-Haefelin C., Horster S., Wachtler M., Spannagl M., Haas J., Diepolder H.M., Gruner N.H. Inhibitory molecules that regulate expansion and restoration of HCV-specific CD4+ T cells in patients with chronic infection. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 141, No. 4, pp. 1422–1431. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21763239.Raziorrouh B., Ulsenheimer A., Schraut W., Heeg M., Kurktschiev P., Zachoval R., Jung M.C., Thimme R., Neumann-Haefelin C., Horster S., Wachtler M., Spannagl M., Haas J., Diepolder H.M., Gruner N.H. Inhibitory molecules that regulate expansion and restoration of HCV-specific CD4+ T cells in patients with chronic infection. Gastroenterology, 2011, Vol. 141, No. 4, pp. 1422–1431. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21763239.Kared H., Fabre T., Bedard N., Bruneau J., Shoukry N.H. Galectin-9 and IL-21 mediate cross-regulation between Th17 and Treg cells during acute hepatitis C. PLoS Pathog., 2013, Vol. 9, pp. e1003422. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23818845.Kared H., Fabre T., Bedard N., Bruneau J., Shoukry N.H. Galectin-9 and IL-21 mediate cross-regulation between Th17 and Treg cells during acute hepatitis C. PLoS Pathog., 2013, Vol. 9, pp. e1003422. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23818845.Taye S., Lakew M. Impact of hepatitis C virus co-infection on HIV patients before and after highly active antiretroviral therapy: an immunological and clinical chemistry observation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Immunol., 2013, Vol. 14, pp. e23. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23679118.Taye S., Lakew M. Impact of hepatitis C virus co-infection on HIV patients before and after highly active antiretroviral therapy: an immunological and clinical chemistry observation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Immunol., 2013, Vol. 14, pp. e23. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23679118.Santin M., Mestre M., Shaw E., Barbera M.J., Casanova A., Niubo J., Bolao F., Podzamczer D., Gudiol F. Impact of hepatitis C virus coinfection on immune restoration during successful antiretroviral therapy in chronic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2008. Vol. 27, No. 1. pp. 65–73. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17938979.Santin M., Mestre M., Shaw E., Barbera M.J., Casanova A., Niubo J., Bolao F., Podzamczer D., Gudiol F. Impact of hepatitis C virus coinfection on immune restoration during successful antiretroviral therapy in chronic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2008. Vol. 27, No. 1. pp. 65–73. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17938979.Yacisin K., Maida I., Rios M.J., Soriano V., Nunez M. Hepatitis C virus coinfection does not affect CD4 restoration in HIV-infected patients after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses, 2008, Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 935–940. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593347.Yacisin K., Maida I., Rios M.J., Soriano V., Nunez M. Hepatitis C virus coinfection does not affect CD4 restoration in HIV-infected patients after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses, 2008, Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 935–940. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593347.Rockstroh J.K., Mocroft A., Soriano V., Tural C., Losso M.H., Horban A., Kirk O., Phillips A., Ledergerber B., Lundgren J., Euro S.S.G. Influence of hepatitis C virus infection on HIV-1 disease progression and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 2005, Vol. 192, No. 6, pp. 992–1002. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16107951.Rockstroh J.K., Mocroft A., Soriano V., Tural C., Losso M.H., Horban A., Kirk O., Phillips A., Ledergerber B., Lundgren J., Euro S.S.G. Influence of hepatitis C virus infection on HIV-1 disease progression and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J. Infect. Dis., 2005, Vol. 192, No. 6, pp. 992–1002. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16107951.Tsiara C.G., Nikolopoulos G.K., Dimou N.L., Bagos P.G., Saroglou G., Velonakis E., Hatzakis A. Effect of hepatitis C virus on immunological and virological responses in HIV-infected patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. J. Viral Hepat., 2013, Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 715–724. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24010646.Tsiara C.G., Nikolopoulos G.K., Dimou N.L., Bagos P.G., Saroglou G., Velonakis E., Hatzakis A. Effect of hepatitis C virus on immunological and virological responses in HIV-infected patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. J. Viral Hepat., 2013, Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 715–724. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24010646.Mohan M., Kaushal D., Aye P.P., Alvarez X., Veazey R.S., Lackner A.A. Focused examination of the intestinal epithelium reveals transcriptional signatures consistent with disturbances in enterocyte maturation and differentiation during the course of SIV infection. PloS One, 2013, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. e60122. URL: ://WOS:000317909600013.Mohan M., Kaushal D., Aye P.P., Alvarez X., Veazey R.S., Lackner A.A. Focused examination of the intestinal epithelium reveals transcriptional signatures consistent with disturbances in enterocyte maturation and differentiation during the course of SIV infection. PloS One, 2013, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. e60122. URL: ://WOS:000317909600013.Klatt N.R., Funderburg N.T., Brenchley J.M. Microbial translocation, immune activation, and HIV disease. Trends Microbiol., 2013, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 6–13. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23062765.Klatt N.R., Funderburg N.T., Brenchley J.M. Microbial translocation, immune activation, and HIV disease. Trends Microbiol., 2013, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 6–13. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23062765.Nazli A., Chan O., Dobson-Belaire W.N., Ouellet M., Tremblay M.J., Gray-Owen S.D., Arsenault A.L., Kaushic C. Exposure to HIV-1 directly impairs mucosal epithelial barrier integrity allowing microbial translocation. PloS Pathog., 2010, Vol. 6, pp. e1000852. URL: ://WOS:000277722400024.Nazli A., Chan O., Dobson-Belaire W.N., Ouellet M., Tremblay M.J., Gray-Owen S.D., Arsenault A.L., Kaushic C. Exposure to HIV-1 directly impairs mucosal epithelial barrier integrity allowing microbial translocation. PloS Pathog., 2010, Vol. 6, pp. e1000852. URL: ://WOS:000277722400024.Smith A.J., Schacker T.W., Reilly C.S., Haase A.T. A role for syndecan-1 and claudin-2 in microbial translocation during HIV-1 infection. JAIDS, 2010, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 306–315. URL: ://WOS:000283847400006.Smith A.J., Schacker T.W., Reilly C.S., Haase A.T. A role for syndecan-1 and claudin-2 in microbial translocation during HIV-1 infection. JAIDS, 2010, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 306–315. URL: ://WOS:000283847400006.Klatt N.R., Estes J.D., Sun X., Ortiz A.M., Barber J.S., Harris L.D., Cervasi B., Yokomizo L.K., Pan L., Vinton C.L., Tabb B., Canary L.A., Dang Q., Hirsch V.M., Alter G., Belkaid Y., Lifson J.D., Silvestri G., Milner J.D., Paiardini M., Haddad E.K., Brenchley J.M. Loss of mucosal CD103+ DCs and IL-17+ and IL-22+ lymphocytes is associated with mucosal damage in SIV infection. Mucosal Immunol., 2012, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 646–657. URL: ://WOS:000310572800007.Klatt N.R., Estes J.D., Sun X., Ortiz A.M., Barber J.S., Harris L.D., Cervasi B., Yokomizo L.K., Pan L., Vinton C.L., Tabb B., Canary L.A., Dang Q., Hirsch V.M., Alter G., Belkaid Y., Lifson J.D., Silvestri G., Milner J.D., Paiardini M., Haddad E.K., Brenchley J.M. Loss of mucosal CD103+ DCs and IL-17+ and IL-22+ lymphocytes is associated with mucosal damage in SIV infection. Mucosal Immunol., 2012, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 646–657. URL: ://WOS:000310572800007.Brenchley J.M., Price D.A., Schacker T.W., Asher T.E., Silvestri G., Rao S., Kazzaz Z., Bornstein E., Lambotte O., Altmann D., Blazar B.R., Rodriguez B., Teixeira-Johnson L., Landay A., Martin J.N., Hecht F.M., Picker L.J., Lederman M.M., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nat. Med., 2006, Vol. 12, No. 12, pp. 1365–1371. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17115046.Brenchley J.M., Price D.A., Schacker T.W., Asher T.E., Silvestri G., Rao S., Kazzaz Z., Bornstein E., Lambotte O., Altmann D., Blazar B.R., Rodriguez B., Teixeira-Johnson L., Landay A., Martin J.N., Hecht F.M., Picker L.J., Lederman M.M., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nat. Med., 2006, Vol. 12, No. 12, pp. 1365–1371. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17115046.Leon A., Leal L., Torres B., Lucero C., Inciarte A., Arnedo M., Plana M., Vila J., Gatell J.M., Garcia F. Association of microbial translocation biomarkers with clinical outcome in controllers HIV-infected patients. AIDS, 2015, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 675–681. URL: ://WOS:000351688200005.Leon A., Leal L., Torres B., Lucero C., Inciarte A., Arnedo M., Plana M., Vila J., Gatell J.M., Garcia F. Association of microbial translocation biomarkers with clinical outcome in controllers HIV-infected patients. AIDS, 2015, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 675–681. URL: ://WOS:000351688200005.Perkins M.R., Bartha I., Timmer J.K., Liebner J.C., Wolinsky D., Gunthard H.F., Hauser C., Bernasconi E., Hoffmann M., Calmy A., Battegay M., Telenti A., Douek D.C., Fellay J., Study S.H.C. The interplay between host genetic variation, viral replication, and microbial translocation in untreated HIV-infected individuals. J. Infect. Dis., 2015, Vol. 212, No. 4, pp. 578–584. URL: ://WOS:000359677600010.Perkins M.R., Bartha I., Timmer J.K., Liebner J.C., Wolinsky D., Gunthard H.F., Hauser C., Bernasconi E., Hoffmann M., Calmy A., Battegay M., Telenti A., Douek D.C., Fellay J., Study S.H.C. The interplay between host genetic variation, viral replication, and microbial translocation in untreated HIV-infected individuals. J. Infect. Dis., 2015, Vol. 212, No. 4, pp. 578–584. URL: ://WOS:000359677600010.Jiang W., Lederman M.M., Hunt P., Sieg S.F., Haley K., Rodriguez B., Landay A., Martin J., Sinclair E., Asher A.I., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C., Brenchley J.M. Plasma levels of bacterial DNA correlate with immune activation and the magnitude of immune restoration in persons with antiretroviral-treated HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 199, No. 8, pp. 1177–1185. URL: ://WOS:000264409000013.Jiang W., Lederman M.M., Hunt P., Sieg S.F., Haley K., Rodriguez B., Landay A., Martin J., Sinclair E., Asher A.I., Deeks S.G., Douek D.C., Brenchley J.M. Plasma levels of bacterial DNA correlate with immune activation and the magnitude of immune restoration in persons with antiretroviral-treated HIV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 2009, Vol. 199, No. 8, pp. 1177–1185. URL: ://WOS:000264409000013.Marchetti G., Gori A., Casabianca A., Magnani M., Franzetti F., Clerici M., Perno C.F., Monforte A., Galli M., Meroni L. Comparative analysis of T-cell turnover and homeostatic parameters in HIV-infected patients with discordant immune-virological responses to HAART. AIDS, 2006, Vol. 20, No. 13, pp. 1727–1736. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16931937.Marchetti G., Gori A., Casabianca A., Magnani M., Franzetti F., Clerici M., Perno C.F., Monforte A., Galli M., Meroni L. Comparative analysis of T-cell turnover and homeostatic parameters in HIV-infected patients with discordant immune-virological responses to HAART. AIDS, 2006, Vol. 20, No. 13, pp. 1727–1736. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16931937.Novati S., Sacchi P., Cima S., Zuccaro V., Columpsi P., Pagani L., Filice G., Bruno R. General issues on microbial translocation in HIV-infected patients. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2015, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 866–878. URL: ://WOS:000352642700024.Novati S., Sacchi P., Cima S., Zuccaro V., Columpsi P., Pagani L., Filice G., Bruno R. General issues on microbial translocation in HIV-infected patients. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2015, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 866–878. URL: ://WOS:000352642700024.Marchetti G., Nasta P., Bai F., Gatti F., Bellistri G.M., Tincati C., Borghi F., Carosi G., Puoti M., Monforte A. Circulating sCD14 is associated with virological response to pegylated-interferon-alpha/ribavirin treatment in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. PLoS One, 2012, Vol. 7, pp. e32028. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22363790.Marchetti G., Nasta P., Bai F., Gatti F., Bellistri G.M., Tincati C., Borghi F., Carosi G., Puoti M., Monforte A. Circulating sCD14 is associated with virological response to pegylated-interferon-alpha/ribavirin treatment in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. PLoS One, 2012, Vol. 7, pp. e32028. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22363790.de Oca Arjona M.M., Marquez M., Soto M.J., Rodriguez-Ramos C., Terron A., Vergara A., Arizcorreta A., Fernandez-Gutierrez C., GironGonzalez J.A. Bacterial translocation in HIV-infected patients with HCV cirrhosis: implication in hemodynamic alterations and mortality. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 2011, Vol. 56, No. 5, pp. 420–427. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21266909.de Oca Arjona M.M., Marquez M., Soto M.J., Rodriguez-Ramos C., Terron A., Vergara A., Arizcorreta A., Fernandez-Gutierrez C., GironGonzalez J.A. Bacterial translocation in HIV-infected patients with HCV cirrhosis: implication in hemodynamic alterations and mortality. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 2011, Vol. 56, No. 5, pp. 420–427. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21266909.Scarpellini E., Valenza V., Gabrielli M., Lauritano E.C., Perotti G., Merra G., Dal Lago A., Ojetti V., Ainora M.E., Santoro M., Ghirlanda G., Gasbarrini A. Intestinal permeability in cirrhotic patients with and without spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: is the ring closed? Am. J. Gastroenterol., 2010, Vol. 105, No. 2, pp. 323–327. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19844200.Scarpellini E., Valenza V., Gabrielli M., Lauritano E.C., Perotti G., Merra G., Dal Lago A., Ojetti V., Ainora M.E., Santoro M., Ghirlanda G., Gasbarrini A. Intestinal permeability in cirrhotic patients with and without spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: is the ring closed? Am. J. Gastroenterol., 2010, Vol. 105, No. 2, pp. 323–327. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19844200.Nakamoto N., Kanai T. Role of toll-like receptors in immune activation and tolerance in the liver. Front. Immunol., 2014, Vol. 5, pp. e221. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24904576.Nakamoto N., Kanai T. Role of toll-like receptors in immune activation and tolerance in the liver. Front. Immunol., 2014, Vol. 5, pp. e221. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24904576.Paik Y.H., Schwabe R.F., Bataller R., Russo M.P., Jobin C., Brenner D.A. Toll-like receptor 4 mediates inflammatory signaling by bacterial lipopolysaccharide in human hepatic stellate cells. Hepatology, 2003, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 1043–1055. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12717385.Paik Y.H., Schwabe R.F., Bataller R., Russo M.P., Jobin C., Brenner D.A. Toll-like receptor 4 mediates inflammatory signaling by bacterial lipopolysaccharide in human hepatic stellate cells. Hepatology, 2003, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 1043–1055. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12717385.Scott M.J., Liu S., Shapiro R.A., Vodovotz Y., Billiar T.R. Endotoxin uptake in mouse liver is blocked by endotoxin pretreatment through a suppressor of cytokine signaling-1-dependent mechanism. Hepatology, 2009, Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 1695–1708. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19296467.Scott M.J., Liu S., Shapiro R.A., Vodovotz Y., Billiar T.R. Endotoxin uptake in mouse liver is blocked by endotoxin pretreatment through a suppressor of cytokine signaling-1-dependent mechanism. Hepatology, 2009, Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 1695–1708. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19296467.Lumsden A.B., Henderson J.M., Kutner M.H. Endotoxin levels measured by a chromogenic assay in portal, hepatic and peripheral venous blood in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology, 1988, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 232–236. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3281884.Lumsden A.B., Henderson J.M., Kutner M.H. Endotoxin levels measured by a chromogenic assay in portal, hepatic and peripheral venous blood in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology, 1988, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 232–236. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3281884.Gonzalez V.D., Falconer K., Blom K.G., Reichard O., Morn B., Laursen A.L., Weis N., Alaeus A., Sandberg J.K. High levels of chronic immune activation in the T-cell compartments of patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and on highly active antiretroviral therapy are reverted by alpha interferon and ribavirin treatment. J. Virol., 2009, Vol. 83, No. 21, pp. 11407–11411. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19710147.Gonzalez V.D., Falconer K., Blom K.G., Reichard O., Morn B., Laursen A.L., Weis N., Alaeus A., Sandberg J.K. High levels of chronic immune activation in the T-cell compartments of patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and on highly active antiretroviral therapy are reverted by alpha interferon and ribavirin treatment. J. Virol., 2009, Vol. 83, No. 21, pp. 11407–11411. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19710147.Feuth T., Arends J.E., Fransen J.H., Nanlohy N.M., van Erpecum K.J., Siersema P.D., Hoepelman A.I., van Baarle D. Complementary role of HCV and HIV in T-cell activation and exhaustion in HIV/HCV coinfection. PLoS One, 2013, Vol. 8, pp. e59302. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23555014.Feuth T., Arends J.E., Fransen J.H., Nanlohy N.M., van Erpecum K.J., Siersema P.D., Hoepelman A.I., van Baarle D. Complementary role of HCV and HIV in T-cell activation and exhaustion in HIV/HCV coinfection. PLoS One, 2013, Vol. 8, pp. e59302. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23555014.Green D.R., Droin N., Pinkoski M. Activation-induced cell death in T cells. Immunol. Rev., 2003, Vol. 193, pp. 70–81. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12752672.Green D.R., Droin N., Pinkoski M. Activation-induced cell death in T cells. Immunol. Rev., 2003, Vol. 193, pp. 70–81. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12752672.Brenner D., Krammer P.H., Arnold R. Concepts of activated T cell death. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol., 2008, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 52–64. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18289867.Brenner D., Krammer P.H., Arnold R. Concepts of activated T cell death. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol., 2008, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 52–64. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18289867.Funderburg N., Luciano A.A., Jiang W., Rodriguez B., Sieg S.F., Lederman M.M. Toll-like receptor ligands induce human T cell activation and death, a model for HIV pathogenesis. PLoS One., 2008, Vol. 3., pp. e1915. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18382686.Funderburg N., Luciano A.A., Jiang W., Rodriguez B., Sieg S.F., Lederman M.M. Toll-like receptor ligands induce human T cell activation and death, a model for HIV pathogenesis. PLoS One., 2008, Vol. 3., pp. e1915. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18382686.Körner C., Krämer B., Schulte D., Coenen M., Mauss S., Fatkenheuer G., Oldenburg J., Nattermann J., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U. Effects of HCV co-infection on apoptosis of CD4+ T-cells in HIV-positive patients. Clin. Sci. (Lond.), 2009, Vol. 116, No. 12, pp. 861–870. URL:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19128241.Körner C., Krämer B., Schulte D., Coenen M., Mauss S., Fatkenheuer G., Oldenburg J., Nattermann J., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U. Effects of HCV co-infection on apoptosis of CD4+ T-cells in HIV-positive patients. Clin. Sci. (Lond.), 2009, Vol. 116, No. 12, pp. 861–870. URL:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19128241.Körner C., Tolksdorf F., Riesner K., Krämer B., Schulte D., Nattermann J., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U. Hepatitis C coinfection enhances sensitization of CD4(+) T-cells towards Fas-induced apoptosis in viraemic and HAART-controlled HIV-1-positive patients. Antivir. Ther., 2011, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 1047–1055. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22024520.Körner C., Tolksdorf F., Riesner K., Krämer B., Schulte D., Nattermann J., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U. Hepatitis C coinfection enhances sensitization of CD4(+) T-cells towards Fas-induced apoptosis in viraemic and HAART-controlled HIV-1-positive patients. Antivir. Ther., 2011, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 1047–1055. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22024520.Dichamp I., Abbas W., Kumar A., Di Martino V., Herbein G. Cellular activation and intracellular HCV load in peripheral blood monocytes isolated from HCV monoinfected and HIV-HCV coinfected patients. PLoS One, 2014, Vol. 9, pp. e96907. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24809719.Dichamp I., Abbas W., Kumar A., Di Martino V., Herbein G. Cellular activation and intracellular HCV load in peripheral blood monocytes isolated from HCV monoinfected and HIV-HCV coinfected patients. PLoS One, 2014, Vol. 9, pp. e96907. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24809719.Rempel H., Sun B., Calosing C., Abadjian L., Monto A., Pulliam L. Monocyte activation in HIV/HCV coinfection correlates with cognitive impairment. PLoS One, 2013, Vol. 8, pp. e55776. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23437063.Rempel H., Sun B., Calosing C., Abadjian L., Monto A., Pulliam L. Monocyte activation in HIV/HCV coinfection correlates with cognitive impairment. PLoS One, 2013, Vol. 8, pp. e55776. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23437063.Goeser F., Glassner A., Kokordelis P., Wolter F., Lutz P., Kaczmarek D.J., Schwarze-Zander C., Boesecke C., Strassburg C.P., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U., Kramer B., Nattermann J. HIV mono-infection is associated with an impaired anti-hepatitis C virus activity of natural killer cells. AIDS, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 355–363. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26558728.Goeser F., Glassner A., Kokordelis P., Wolter F., Lutz P., Kaczmarek D.J., Schwarze-Zander C., Boesecke C., Strassburg C.P., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U., Kramer B., Nattermann J. HIV mono-infection is associated with an impaired anti-hepatitis C virus activity of natural killer cells. AIDS, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 355–363. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26558728.Kahan S.M., Wherry E.J., Zajac A.J. T cell exhaustion during persistent viral infections. Virology, 2015, Vol. 479–480, pp. 180–193. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25620767.Kahan S.M., Wherry E.J., Zajac A.J. T cell exhaustion during persistent viral infections. Virology, 2015, Vol. 479–480, pp. 180–193. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25620767.Tsoukas C. Immunosenescence and aging in HIV. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2014, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 398–404. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24840059.Tsoukas C. Immunosenescence and aging in HIV. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS, 2014, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 398–404. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24840059.Hartling H.J., Jespersen S., Gaardbo J.C., Sambleben C., Thorsteinsson K., Gerstoft J., Ullum H., Nielsen S.D. Reduced IL-7R T cell expression and increased plasma sCD127 in late presenting HIV-infected individuals. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 2017, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 81–90. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27509242.Hartling H.J., Jespersen S., Gaardbo J.C., Sambleben C., Thorsteinsson K., Gerstoft J., Ullum H., Nielsen S.D. Reduced IL-7R T cell expression and increased plasma sCD127 in late presenting HIV-infected individuals. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 2017, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 81–90. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27509242.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.