References

aids

ВИЧ-инфекция и иммуносупрессии

HIV Infection and Immunosuppressive Disorders

2077-9828

Baltic Medical Education Center

10.22328/2077-9828-2020-12-1-32-46

aids-521

Research Article

ЛЕКЦИЯ

LECTURE

ВОПРОСЫ ЭПИДЕМИОЛОГИИ И ПАТОГЕНЕЗА СОЧЕТАННОЙ ИНФЕКЦИИ ВГС И ВИЧ

ISSUES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS OF HIVHCV COINFECTION

Рассохин

В. В.

Rassokhin

V. V.

доктор медицинских наук, профессор кафедры социально-значимых инфекций; ведущий научный сотрудник отдела экологической физиологии

197022, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Льва Толстого, д. 6–8

Боева

Е. В.

Boeva

E. V.

клинический ординатор кафедры социально-значимых инфекций; заведующая отделением хронической вирусной инфекции; врач-инфекционист

197101, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Мира, д. 14

kathrine.boeva@gmail.com

ФГБОУ ВО Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный медицинский университет им. И.П. Павлова МЗ РФ; ФГБНУ Институт экспериментальной медицины; ФБУН «Санкт-Петербургский научно-исследовательский институт эпидемиологии и микробиологии им. Пастера»РоссияPavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University; St. Petersburg Pasteur Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology; FSBSI «Institute of Experimental Medicine»Russian Federation

ФГБОУ ВО Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный медицинский университет им. И.П. Павлова МЗ РФ; ФГБНУ Институт экспериментальной медицины; ГКУ «Ленинградский областной центр по профилактике и борьбе со СПИД и инфекционными заболеваниями»РоссияPavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University; St. Petersburg Pasteur Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology; St. Petersburg Center for the Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious DiseasesRussian Federation

2020

25052020

1213246

2020

Рассохин В.В., Боева Е.В.

Rassokhin V.V., Boeva E.V.

Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

https://hiv.bmoc-spb.ru/jour/article/view/521

Дана общая характеристика вируса гепатита С (ВГС) и особенностей течения сочетанной инфекции с вирусом иммуно-дефицита человека (ВИЧ). Рассмотрены эпидемиологические аспекты данных заболеваний, в том числе в ключевых группах населения. Особое влияние уделено патогенетическим звеньям развития патологических процессов у ВИЧ-инфицированных пациентов с хроническим гепатитом С (ХГС).

General characteristic of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and features of the course of co-infection with human immunodeﬁciency virus (HIV) was presented. Epidemiologic aspects of these diseases were considered in key populations. Special focus was on pathogenetic components of pathogenic mechanisms in HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC).

ВИЧ-инфекция (ВИЧ)вирусный гепатит С (ВГС)хронический гепатит С (ХГС)патогенезклиническая картина

HIV-infection (HIV)hepatitis C virus (HCV)chronic hepatitis C (CHC)pathogenesisclinical picture

References1

Management of Hepatitis C and HIV Coinfection. WHO, 2006. 272 p.

Scheel T.K., Rice C.M. Understanding the hepatitis C virus life cycle paves the way for highly effective therapies // Nat. Med. 2013. Vol. 19. Р. 837.

Ahmadi Pour M.H., Alavian S.M., Amini S., Azadmanesh K. Hepatitis C Virus Genotypes // Hepatitis Monthly. 2005. Vol. 5. Р. 77.

Farci P., Shimoda A., Coiana A., Diaz G., Peddis G., Melpolder J.C., Strazzera A., Chien D.Y., Munoz S.J., Balestrieri A., Purcell R.H., Alter H.J. The outcome of acute hepatitis C predicted by the evolution of the viral quasispecies // Science. 2000. Apr. 14. Vol. 288 (5464). Р. 339–344.

Murphy D.G., Sabion E., Chamberland J., Fournier E., Dandavino R., Tremblay C.L. Hepatitis C genotype 7, a new genotype originating from central Africa // J. Clin. Microbiol. 2015. Mar. Vol. 53 (3). Р. 967–972.

Hoofnagle J.H. Chronic hepatitis // Goldman L., Ausello D., eds. Cecil Medicine. 23d ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2008.

Sulkowski M.S., Moore R.D., Mehta S.H., Chaisson R.E., Thomas D.L. Hepatitis C and progression of HIV disease // JAMA. 2002. Vol. 288 (2). Р. 199–206. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12095384.

Ciesek S., Friesland M., Steinmann J. et al. How stable is the hepatitis C virus (HCV)? Environmental stability of HCV and its susceptibility tochemical biocides // J. Infect Dis. 2010. Vol. 201 (12). Р. 1859–1866. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pubmed/20441517.

Paintsil E., He H., Peters C., Lindenbach B.D., Heimer R. Survival of hepatitis C virus in syringes: implication for transmission among injection drug users // J. Infect Dis. 2010. Vol. 202 (7). Р. 984–990. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/20726768.

Prati D. Transmission of hepatitis C virus by blood transfusions and other medical procedures: a global review // J. Hepatol. 2006. Vol. 45 (4). Р. 607–616. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16901579.

Alter M.J. Healthcare should not be a vehicle for transmission of hepatitis C virus // J. Hepatol. 2008. Vol. 48 (1). Р. 2–4. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18023493.

Centers for Disease C, Prevention. Acute hepatitis C virus infections attributed to unsafe injection practices at an endoscopy clinic-Nevada, 2007 //MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2008. Vol. 57 (19). Р. 513–517. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18480743.

Eyster M.E., Alter H.J., Aledort L.M., Quan S., Hatzakis A., Goedert J.J. Heterosexual co-transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeﬁciency virus (HIV) // Ann. Intern. Med. 1991. Vol. 115 (10). Р. 764–768. Available at http://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1656825,

Lissen E., Alter H.J., Abad M.A. et al. Hepatitis C virus infection among sexually promiscuous groups and the heterosexual partners of hepatitis C virus infected index cases // Eur. J. Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1993. Vol. 12 (11). Р. 827–831. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7509282.

Van de Laar T.J., Van der Bij A.K., Prins M. et al. Increase in HCV incidence among men who have sex with men in Amsterdam most likely caused by sexual transmission // J. Infect Dis. 2007. Vol. 196 (2). Р. 230–238. Available at http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17570110.

Van de Laar T.J., Matthews G.V., Prins M., Danta M. Acute hepatitis C in HIV-infected men who have sex with men: an emerging sexually trans- mitted infection // AIDS. 2010. Vol. 24 (12). Р. 1799–1812. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/20601854.

Rauch A., Rickenbach M., Weber R. et al. Unsafe sex and increased incidence of hepatitis C virus infection among HIVinfected men who have sex with men: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2005. Vol. 41 (3). Р. 395–402. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/16007539.

Van de Laar T., Pybus O., Bruisten S. et al. Evidence of a large, international network of HCV transmission in HIV positive men who have sex with men // Gastroenterology. 2009. Vol. 136 (5). Р. 1609–1617. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pubmed/19422083.

Fierer D.S., Uriel A.J., Carriero D.C. et al. Liver ﬁbrosis during an outbreak of acute hepatitis C virus infection in HIVinfected men: a prospective cohort study // J. Infect Dis. 2008. Vol. 198 (5). Р. 683–686. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/18627270.

Taylor L.E., Holubar M., Wu K. et al. Incident hepatitis C virus infection among US HIV-infected men enrolled in clinical trials // Clinical infec- tious diseases: an offi publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2011. Vol. 52 (6). Р. 812–818. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21282184.

Crepaz N., Hart T.A., Marks G. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior: a meta-analytic review // JAMA. 2004. Vol. 292 (2). Р. 224–236. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15249572.

Stolte I.G., Dukers N.H., Geskus R.B., Coutinho R.A., de Wit J.B. Homosexual men change to risky sex when perceiving less threat of HIV/AIDS since availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a longitudinal study // AIDS. 2004. Vol. 18 (2). Р. 303–309. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15075549.

Ohto H., Terazawa S., Sasaki N., et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. The Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Collaborative Study Group // The New England Journal of Medicine. 1994. Vol. 330 (11). Р. 744–750. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8107740.

Roberts E.A., Yeung L. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection // Hepatology. 2002. Vol. 36 (5 Suppl. 1). Р. 106–113. Available at ttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12407583.

McMenamin M.B., Jackson A.D., Lambert J. et al. Obstetric management of hepatitis C-positive mothers: analysis of vertical transmission in 559 mother-infant pairs // Am J. Obstet Gynecol. 2008. Vol. 199 (3). Р. 311–315. Available at http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18771997.

Valladares G., Chacaltana A., Sjogren M.H. The management of HCV-infected pregnant women // Ann. Hepatol. 2010. Vol. 9. Suppl. Р. 92–97. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20714003.

Mast E.E., Hwang L.Y., Seto D.S., et al. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy // J. Infect Dis. 2005. Vol. 192 (11). Р. 1880–1889. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/16267758.

Alter M.J. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection // J. Hepatol. 2006. Vol. 44 (1 Suppl.). Р. 6–9. Available at http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16352363.

Chu C.M., Yeh C.T., Liaw Y.F. Fulminant hepatic failure in acute hepatitis C: increased risk in chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus // Gut. 1999. Vol. 45. Р. 613–617.

Massard J., Ratziu V., Thabut D. et al. Natural history and predictors of disease severity in chronic hepatitis C // J. Hepatol. 2006. Vol. 44 (1 Suppl). Р. 19–S24.

Lauer G.M., Walker B.D… Hepatitis C virus infection // N. Engl. J. Med. 2001. Vol. 345. Р. 41–52.

https://www.who.int/ru/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c

http://rospotrebnadzor.ru/

Sulkowski M.S., Thomas D.L. Hepatitis C in the HIV-infected patient // Clin. Liver Dis. 2003. Vol. 7. Р. 179–194.

Alberti A., Clumeck N., Collins S. et al. Short statement of the ﬁrst European consensus conference on the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and C in HIV co-infected patients // J. Hepatol. 2005. Vol. 42. Р. 615–624.

Виноградова Т.Н., Пантелеева О.В., Пискарев И.Г., Карнаухов Е.В., Бембеева Н.А., Беляков Н.А., Распространенность ВИЧ-инфекции среди потребителей инъекционных наркотиков в Санкт-Петербурге. Часть I. Общая характеристика обследованных наркопотребителей. ВИЧ-инфекция и иммуносупрессии. 2015. Т. 7, № 4. С. 41–51.

Vinogradova T.N., Panteleeva O.V., Piskarev I.G., Karnaukhov E.V., Bembeeva N.A., Belyakov N.A. Prevalence of HIV infection among injecting drug users in St. Petersburg. Part I. General characteristics of sur- veyed drug users. HIV Infection and Immunosuppressive Disorders, 2015, Vol. 7, No 4, pp. 41–51 (In Russ.)

Виноградова Т.Н., Пантелеева О.В., Пискарев И.Г., Карнаухов Е.В., Бембеева Н.А., Беляков Н.А., Распространенность ВИЧ-инфекции среди потребителей инъекционных наркотиков в Санкт-Петербурге. Часть II. Информированность о ВИЧ и обращаемость за помощью // ВИЧ-инфекция и иммуносупрессии. 2016. Т. 8. № 2. С. 23–31.

Vinogradova T.N., Panteleeva O.V., Piskarev I.G., Karnaukhov E.V., Bembeeva N.A., Belyakov N.A. Prevalence of HIV infection among injecting drug users in St. Petersburg. Part II. HIV awareness and access to care. HIV Infection and Immunosuppressive Disorders, 2016, Vol. 8, No 2, pp. 23–31 (In Russ.).

Sherman K.E., Rouster S.D., Chung R.T., Rajicic N. Hepatitis C Virus prevalence among patients infected with Human Immunodeﬁciency Virus: a cross-sectional analysis of the US adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group // Clin. Infect. Dis. 2002. Vol. 34. Р. 831–837.

Zanetti A.R., Tanzi E., Paccagnini S. et al. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus // Lancet. 1995. Vol. 345. Р. 289–291.

Gibb D.M., Goodall R.L., Dunn D.T. et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus: evidence for preventable peripartum transmission.Lancet. 2000. Vol. 356. Р. 904–907.

Thomas D.L., Shih J.W., Alter H.J. et al. Effect of human immunodeﬁciency virus on hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users //J. Infect Dis., 1996. Vol. 174. Р. 690–695.

Eyster M.E., Fried M.W., Di Bisceglie A.M., Goedert J.J. Increasing hepatitis C virus RNA levels in hemophiliacs: relationship to human immun- odeﬁciency virus infection and liver disease. Blood. 1994. Vol. 84. Р. 1020–1023.

Eyster M.E., Alter H.J., Aledort L.M. et al. Heterosexual co-transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeﬁciency virus (HIV)// Ann. Intern. Med. 1991. Vol. 115. Р. 764–768.

Luetkemeyer A., Hare C.B., Stansell J. et al. Clinical presentation and course of acute hepatitis C infection in HIV infected patients // J. Acquir Immune Deﬁc. Syndr. 2006. Vol. 41. Р. 31–36.

Danta M., Brown D., Bhagani S. et al. Recent epidemic of acute hepatitis C virus in HIV-positive men who have sex with men linked to high-risk sexual behaviours // AIDS. 2007. Vol. 21. Р. 983–991.

Kirk G.D., Mehta S.H., Astemborski J. et al. HIV, age, and the severity of hepatitis C virus-related liver disease: a cohort study // Ann. Intern. Med. 2013. Vol. 158 (9). Р. 658–666.

Butt A.A., McGinnis K., Rodriguez-Barradas M.C. et al. HIV infection and the risk of diabetes mellitus. AIDS. 2009. Vol. 23 (10). Р. 1227–1234.

Fischer M.J., Wyatt C.M., Gordon K. et al. Hepatitis C and the risk of kidney disease and mortality in veterans with HIV // JAIDS. 2010. Vol. 53 (2). Р. 222–226.

Helleberg M., Gerstoft J., Afzal S. et al. Risk of cancer among HIV-infected individuals compared to the background population: impact of smoking and HIV // AIDS. 2014. Vol. 28 (10). Р. 1499–1508.

Bedimo R., Westfall A.O., Mugavero M., Drechsler H., Khanna N., Saag M. Hepatitis C virus coinfection and the risk of cardiovascular disease among HIV-infected patients // HIV Med. 2010. Vol. 11 (7). Р. 462–468.

Sosner P., Wangermez M., Chagneau-Derrode C., Le M.G., Silvain C. Atherosclerosis risk in HIV-infected patients: the inﬂuence of hepatitis C virus co-infection // Atherosclerosis. 2012. Vol. 222 (1). Р. 274–277.

Hilsabeck R.C., Castellon S.A., Hinkin C.H. Neuropsychological aspects of coinfection with HIV and hepatitis C virus // Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005. Vol. 41, Suppl 1. Р. 38–44.

Shoukry N.H., Grakoui A., Houghton M. et al. Memory CD8+ T cells are required for protection from persistent hepatitis C virus infection // J. Exp Med. 2003. Vol. 197. Р. 1645–1655.

Grakoui A., Shoukry N.H., Woollard D.J. et al. HCV persistence and immune evasion in the absence of memory T cell help // Science. 2003. Vol. 302. Р. 659–662.

Schulze zur Wiesch J., Ciuffreda D., Lewis-Ximenez L. et al. Broadly directed virus-speciﬁc CD4+ T cell responses are primed during acute hep- atitis C infection, but rapidly disappear from human blood with viral persistence // J. Exp. Med. 2012. Vol. 209. Р. 61–75.

Kim A.Y., Lauer G.M., Ouchi K. et al. The magnitude and breadth of hepatitis C virus-speciﬁc CD8+ T cells depend on absolute CD4+ T-cell count in individuals coinfected with HIV-1 // Blood. 2005. Vol. 105. Р. 1170–1178.

Kim A.Y., Schulze zur Wiesch J., Kuntzen T. et al. Impaired hepatitis C virus-speciﬁc T cell responses and recurrent hepatitis C virus in HIV coin- fection // PLoS Med. 2006. Vol. 3. Р. 492.

Netski D.M., Mosbruger T., Astemborski J. et al. CD4(+) T cell-dependent reduction in hepatitis C virus-speciﬁc humoral immune responses after HIV infection // J. Infect Dis. 2007. Vol. 195. Р. 857–863.

Thomas D.L., Astemborski J., Rai R.M. et al. The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors // JAMA.2000. Vol. 284. Р. 450–456.

Lanford R.E., Chavez D., Von Chisari F., Sureau C. Lack of detection of negative-strand hepatitis C virus RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and other extrahepatic tissues by the highly strand-speciﬁc rTth reverse transcriptase PCR // J. Virol. 1995. Vol. 69. Р. 8079–8083.

Chung R.T., Evans S.R., Yang Y. et al. Immune recovery is associated with persistent rise in hepatitis C virus RNA, infrequent liver test ﬂares, and is not impaired by hepatitis C virus in co-infected subjects // AIDS. 2002. Vol. 16. Р. 1915–1923.

Lin W., Weinberg E.M., Tai A.W. et al. HIV increases HCV replication in a TGF-beta1-dependent manner // Gastroenterology. 2008. Vol. 134. Р. 803–811.

Stravitz R.T., Chung H., Sterling R.K. et al. Antibodymediated pure red cell aplasia due to epoetin alfa during antiviral therapy of chronic hepatitis C // Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2005. Vol. 100. Р. 1415–1419.

Lin W., Wu G., Li S. et al. HIV and HCV cooperatively promote hepatic ﬁbrogenesis via induction of reactive oxygen species and NFkappaB // J. Biol Chem. 2011. Vol. 286. Р. 2665–2674.

Balasubramanian A., Ganju R.K., Groopman J.E. Signal transducer and activator of transcription factor 1 mediates apoptosis induced by hepatitis C virus and HIV envelope proteins in hepatocytes. J. Infect Dis., 2006. Vol. 194. Р. 670–681.

Munshi N., Balasubramanian A., Koziel M. et al. Hepatitis C and human immunodeﬁciency virus envelope proteins cooperatively induce hepato- cytic apoptosis via an innocent bystander mechanism. J. Infect Dis., 2003. Vol. 188. Р. 1192–1204.

Brenchley J.M., Price D.A., Schacker T.W. et al. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nature Med., 2006. Vol. 12. Р. 1365–1371.

Balagopal A., Philp F.H., Astemborski J. et al. Human immunodeﬁciency virus-related microbial translocation and progression of hepatitis C. Gastroenterology., 2008. Vol. 135. Р. 226–233.

Bruno R., Galastri S., Sacchi P. et al. Gp120 modulates the biology of human hepatic stellate cells: a link between HIV infection and liver ﬁbro- genesis // Gut. 2010. Vol. 59 (4). Р. 513–520.

Mosoian A., Zhang L., Hong F. et al. HIV infection of Kupffer cells results in an ampliﬁed proinﬂammatory response to LPS // J. Leukoc. Biol. Published online December 16, 2016.

Seki E., De Minicis S., Osterreicher C.H. et al. TLR4 enhances TGF-beta signaling and hepatic ﬁbrosis // Nature Med. 2007. Vol. 13. Р. 1324–1332.

Fujita Т., Narumiya Sh. Roles of hepatic stellate cells in liver inﬂammation: a new perspective // Inﬂammation and Regeneration. 2016. Vol. 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41232–016–0005–6/.

Hearps A.C., Martin G.E., Rajasuriar R., Crowe S.M. Inﬂammatory co-morbidities in HIV+ individuals: learning lessons from healthy ageing //Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2014. Vol. 11 (1). Р. 20–34.

Шмагель К.В. Шмагель Н.Г., Черешнев В.А. Активация иммунитета при ВИЧ-инфекции // Медицинская иммунология. 2017. Т. 19, № 5. С. 489–504.

Shmagel K.V. Shmagel N.G., Chereshnev V.A. Activation of immunity in HIV infection. Medical immunology, 2017, Vol. 19, No. 5, рр. 489–504 (In Russ.).

Nelson J.A., Krishnamurthy J., Menezes P. et al. Expression of p16(INK4a) as a biomarker of T-cell aging in HIV-infected patients prior to and during antiretroviral therapy // Aging Cell. 2012. Vol. 11 (5). Р. 916–918.

Liu Y., Sanoff H.K., Cho H. et al. Expression of p16(INK4a) in peripheral blood T-cells is a biomarker of human aging // Aging Cell. 2009. Vol. 8 (4). Р. 439–448.

Di Martino V., Rufat P., Boyer N., Renard P., Degos F., Martinot-Peignoux M., Matheron S., Le Moing V., Vachon F., Degott C., Valla D., Marcellin P. The inﬂuence of human immunodeﬁciency virus coinfection on chronic hepatitis C in injection drug users: a long-term retrospective cohort study // Hepatology. 2001. Dec. Vol. 34 (6). Р. 1193–1199.

Kim A.Y., Chung R.T. Coinfection with HIV–1 and HCV — a one-two punch // Gastroenterology. 2009 Sep. Vol. 137 (3). Р. 795–814. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.06.040. Epub 2009 Jun 21.

Naggie S., Sulkowski M.S. Management of patients coinfected with HCV and HIV: a close look at the role for direct-acting antivirals // Gastroenterology. 2012. Vol. 142 (6). Р. 1324–1334.

Bica I., McGovern B., Dhar R. et al. Increasing mortality due to end-stage liver disease in patients with human immunodeﬁciency virus infection// Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001. Vol. 32. Р. 492–497.

Rosenthal E., Pialoux G., Bernard N. et al. Liver-related mortality in human-immunodeﬁciency-virus-infected patients between 1995 and 2003 in the French GERMIVIC Joint Study Group Network (MORTAVIC 2003 Study) // J. Viral Hepatol. 2007. Vol. 14. Р. 183–188.

Weber R., Sabin C.A., Friis-Moller N. et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeﬁciency virus: the D:A:D study //Arch. Intern. Med. 2006. Vol. 166. Р. 1632–1641.

Ly K.N., Hughes E.M., Jiles R.B., Holmberg S.D. Rising Mortality Associated With Hepatitis C Virus in the United States, 2003–2013 // Clin.Infect. Dis. 2016. May 15. Vol. 62 (10). Р. 1287–1288. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw111. Epub 2016 Mar 1.

Lohse N., Hansen A.B., Pedersen G. et al. Survival of persons with and without HIV infection in Denmark, 1995–2005 // Ann. Intern. Med. 2007. Vol. 146. Р. 87–95.

Sackoff J.E., Hanna D.B., Pfeiffer M.R., Torian L.V. Causes of death among persons with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: New York City // Ann. Intern. Med. 2006. Vol. 145. Р. 397–406.

Lo Re V. 3rd, Kallan M.J., Tate J.P., Localio A.R., Lim J.K., Goetz M.B., Klein M.B., Rimland D., Rodriguez-Barradas M.C., Butt A.A., Gibert C.L., Brown S.T., Park L., Dubrow R., Reddy K.R., Kostman J.R., Strom B.L., Justice A.C. Hepatic decompensation in antiretroviral-treat- ed patients co-infected with HIV and hepatitis C virus compared with hepatitis C virus-monoinfected patients: a cohort study // Ann Intern Med. 2014. Mar 18. Vol. 160 (6). Р. 369–79. doi: 10.7326/M13–1829.

Darby S.C., Ewart D.W., Giangrande P.L. et al. Mortality from liver cancer and liver disease in haemophilic men and boys in UK given blood prod- ucts contaminated with hepatitis C // Lancet. 1997. Vol. 350. Р. 1425–1431.

Goedert J.J., Eyster M.E., Lederman M.M. et al. End-stage liver disease in persons with hemophilia and transfusion- associated infections //Blood. 2002. Vol. 100. Р. 1584–1589.

Thomas D.L., Astemborski J., Rai R.M. et al. The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors // JAMA.2000. Vol. 284. Р. 450–456.

Greub G., Ledergerber B., Battegay M. et al. Clinical progression, survival, and immune recovery during antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus coinfection: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study // Lancet. 2000. Vol. 356. Р. 1800–1805.

Van der Helm J., Geskus R., Sabin C. et al. Effect of HCV infection on cause-speciﬁc mortality after HIV seroconversion, before and after 1997// Gastroenterology. 2013. Vol. 144. Р. 751–760.

Martinez E., Blanco J.L., Arnaiz J.A. et al. Hepatotoxicity in HIV–1-infected patients receiving nevirapine-containing antiretroviral therapy //AIDS. 2001. Vol. 15. Р. 1261–1268.

Sulkowski M.S., Thomas D.L., Chaisson R.E., Moore R.D. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with human immunodeﬁciency virus and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection // JAMA. 2000. Vol. 283. Р. 74–80.

Den Brinker M., Wit F.W., Wertheim-van Dillen P.M. et al. Hepatitis B and C virus co-infection and the risk for hepatotoxicity of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2000. Vol. 14. Р. 2895–2902.

Cattelan A.M. Erne E., Salatino A. et al. Severe hepatic failure related to nevirapine treatment // Clin. Infect Dis. 1999. Vol. 29. Р. 455–456.

Labarga P., Soriano V., Vispo M.E. et al. Hepatotoxicity of antiretroviral drugs is reduced after successful treatment of chronic hepatitis C in HIV- infected patients // J. Infect Dis. 2007. Vol. 196. Р. 670–676.

Monga H.K., Rodriguez-Barradas M.C., Breaux K. et al. Hepatitis C virus infection-related morbidity and mortality among patients with human immunodeﬁciency virus infection // Clin. Infect Dis. 2001. Vol. 33. Р. 240–247.

Brau N., Salvatore M., Rios-Bedoya C.F. et al. Slower ﬁbrosis progression in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients with successful HIV suppression using antiretroviral therapy // J. Hepatol. 2006. Vol. 44. Р. 47–55.

100

Qurishi N., Kreuzberg C.L., Rockstroh J.K., Spengler U. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on liver-related mortality in patients with HIV and hepatitis C coinfection // Lancet. 2004. Vol. 362. Р. 1708–1713.

101

Sulkowski M.S., Mehta S.H., Torbenson M.S. et al. Rapid ﬁbrosis progression among HIV/hepatitis C virus-coinfected adults // AIDS. 2007.Vol. 21. Р. 2209–2216.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.